This work looks at conflicts between the Hutu and the Tutsi in Rwanda and Burundi. The conflicts between the two groups have sometimes been characterised as ethnic, although neither group has fundamental attributes of ethnicity or ethnic identity which separate one from the other. They have the same culture. They speak the same language. And they have had a common history during the past 400 years. They have intermingled and have intermarried for so long since the Tutsi arrived in the region about 400 years ago that whatever differences existed between them in the past in terms of culture, identity, and biology have been erased. Yet they do exist as distinct social groups. They maintain separate group identities, as Hutus and as Tutsis, mainly because of the asymmetrical relationship between them. Inequity of power has solidified those identities. Historically, the Tutsi minority have been the rulers. Their status as the dominant group was enhanced during colonial rule when the Belgians favoured and recognised them as the traditional rulers, superior to the Hutu, thus legitimising inequalities between the two groups. The differences between them were even given official sanction. And the subordinate status of the Hutu majority was used by the Belgians to justify discrimination against them in terms of employment and educational opportunities while favouring the Tutsi. The conflict between the two groups is rooted in inequity of power, fuelled by stereotypes against the Hutu majority. Domination of the Hutu majority by the Tutsi minority, which started before the advent of colonial rule, has also solidified ethnic identities of the two groups through the years. A shared consciousness among the members of each group and their distinctiveness - each seeing themselves as different from the other - have also played a major role in the evolution and consolidation of these separate identities.

Godfrey Mwakikagile looks at the major changes Africa has gone through since the end of colonial rule including some of the events he witnessed in his home country Tanganyika – later Tanzania – since the late 1950s, the dawn of a new era when Africa was headed towards independence. One of the fundamental changes he looks at took place in the 1990s when most countries across the continent gradually moved from authoritarian rule to democracy, although he contends that the gains made during that transitional period have not been consolidated and sustained through the years. The majority of Africans still live under one form of authoritarian rule or another including outright dictatorship.

This work focuses on the liberation struggle from the 1960s to the 1990s in the countries of southern Africa to end white minority rule. The author writes from personal experience. When the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was formed in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in May 1963, Tanganyika (now Tanzania) was chosen to be the headquarters of the OAU Liberation Committee. All the African liberation movements went on to open their offices in Tanzania's capital Dar es Salaam. Many refugees fleeing oppression in the countries of southern Africa also went to live in Tanzania. The author was a young news reporter in Dar es Salaam in the early seventies and got the chance to know some of the freedom fighters and their leaders who were based there during those days. He also interviewed a number of them and has provided an additional perspective to his work as a primary source of some of the material included in his book. It was one of the most important periods in the history of post-colonial Africa. Most countries on the continent had won independence by 1968. The toughest struggle was in the few strongholds of white minority rule in the southern part of the continent and in the Portuguese colony of Guinea-Bissau/Cape Verde in West Africa which finally ended in victory. As President Nyerere once said: "Throughout history, nationalist struggles have had one end: victory."

This is a collection of biographical accounts and other writings about Godfrey Mwakikagile, a writer from Tanzania and specialist in African studies. Included are some autobiographical accounts. The work complements his autobiographical writings to provide a broader perspective on him and his contribution to the study of post-colonial Africa.

This volume is the second in the series, Identity? theory, politics, history. It includes Neville Alexander's important study of the link between language and identity in South Africa.

Few societies have faced the difficulties of identity building experienced by Rwanda. This book’s introduction reviews literature on the concepts of myth and trauma, and then introduces basic information on Rwanda and how it has been viewed by the outside world. Chapter One describes early Rwanda’s political and cultural development, traditional narratives, group migrations, the effects of German and later Belgian colonialism, and the introduction of Christianity. It concludes with a look at how this early history has been interpreted and reinterpreted. The second chapter discusses the end of Tutsi dominance and the 1959 Hutu Revolution. It details Hutu Power ideology, Belgian domestic politics, early acts of genocide, refugee movements, and economic and political stagnation. The text documents the development of the Rwandan Patriotic Front, its 1990 invasion, and the Arusha peace process. An account of the 1994 genocide follows. However, as this has been covered in numerous other works, descriptions are limited to key events and general patterns. The chapter ends with a review of films, books, and other publications that brought Rwanda’s plight to a worldwide audience, but that also created new myths. Chapter Three examines the country’s post-genocide reconstruction and attempts to bring justice and reconciliation through the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Tanzania and gacaca courts domestically. Rwanda’s impressive record of economic progress over the last two decades is detailed. However, prospects for democracy have diminished, as its leaders have become increasingly sensitive to criticism and fearful of renewed divisions. Descriptions of the process of developing school curriculums to explain past atrocities, the new myths it created, and their possible consequences comprise most of Chapter Four. The final chapter offers conclusions on the effects of past mythologies and the trauma they have wrought. It draws comparisons with other divided societies and their approaches to dealing with the past. These include Burundi, Ethiopia, South Africa, the United States, Taiwan, Canada, Belgium, Switzerland, and Singapore. An extensive bibliography of books, theses, conference papers, official documents, articles, periodicals, journals, films, websites, other media, and interviews includes translations of titles in Kinyarwanda, French, Dutch, and German.

Representing a unique reference tool for readers interested in history, criminology, or terrorism, this book provides the most complete and up-to-date coverage of assassinations of key figures throughout history and around the world. Effecting the death of a political figure, a leader of a nation, or a public figure usually captures people's attention. But how often is assassination effective to achieve the larger objective beyond the death of the targeted individual? Famous Assassinations in World History: An Encyclopedia offers more than 200 entries on assassinations of all kinds that will allow readers to grasp the often-complex motivating factors behind each event and better understand historical and contemporary social unrest. Each entry identifies the assassination target and summarizes that person's significance; discusses the person's assassination, including the factors that led up to it and its political and cultural contexts; and explains the powerful effects of the assassination in world history. The encyclopedia also includes various sidebars that spotlight relevant individuals, groups, and movements and present intriguing factoids such as the final disposition of notorious assassins' weapons and various films and novels that were inspired by famous assassinations. In addition, 23 primary source documents provide accounts of assassinations throughout world history.

This work looks at some African writers, including those who are not well-known, to show the potential and diversity in the works produced by Africans. Included is a profile of Chinua Achebe and commentaries on his works soon after he passed away.

This work looks at Tanzanian writer Godfrey Mwakikagile and his writings. The book is also about his home country Tanzania and a number of other Tanzanian writers.

This work looks at Tanzanian writers and their writings. The book is also about their home country Tanzania including its history, different ethnic groups and their cultures.