On stock Western history, science originated among the Greeks, and then developed in post-renaissance Europe. This story was fabricated in three phases. First, during the Crusades, scientific knowledge from across the world, in captured Arabic books, was given a theologically-correct origin by claiming it was all transmitted from the Greeks. The key cases of Euclid (geometry) and Claudius Ptolemy (astronomy)— both concocted figures — are used to illustrate this process. Second, during the Inquisition, world scientific knowledge was again assigned a theologically-correct origin by claiming it was not transmitted from others, but was “independently rediscovered” by Europeans. The cases of Copernicus and Newton (calculus) illustrate this process of “revolution by rediscovery”. Third, the appropriated knowledge was reinterpreted and aligned to post-Crusade theology. Colonial and racist historians exploited this, arguing that the (theologically) “correct” version of scientific knowledge (geometry, calculus, etc.) existed only in Europe. These processes of appropriation continue to this day.

Radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dating methods are used to determine the ages and probable origins of fluvial terraces.

On stock Western history, science originated among the Greeks, and then developed in post-renaissance Europe. This story was fabricated in three phases. First, during the Crusades, scientific knowledge from across the world, in captured Arabic books, was given a theologically-correct origin by claiming it was all transmitted from the Greeks. The key cases of Euclid (geometry) and Claudius Ptolemy (astronomy) both concocted figures are used to illustrate this process. Second, during the Inquisition, world scientific knowledge was again assigned a theologically-correct origin by claiming it was not transmitted from others, but was independently rediscovered by Europeans. The cases of Copernicus and Newton (calculus) illustrate this process of revolution by rediscovery. Third, the appropriated knowledge was reinterpreted and aligned to post-Crusade theology. Colonial and racist historians exploited this, arguing that the (theologically) correct version of scientific knowledge (geometry, calculus, etc.) existed only in Europe.

First Published in 1996. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.

A fresh and radical analysis of psychology's scholarly roots and its potential for the future.

Zero has been axial in human development, but the origin and discovery of zero has never been satisfactorily addressed by a comprehensive, systematic and above all interdisciplinary research program. In this volume, over 40 international scholars explore zero under four broad themes: history; religion, philosophy & linguistics; arts; and mathematics & the sciences. Some propose that the invention/discovery of zero may have been facilitated by the prior evolution of a sophisticated concept of Nothingness or Emptiness (as it is understood in non-European traditions); and conversely, inhibited by the absence of, or aversion to, such a concept of Nothingness in the West. But not all scholars agree. Join the debate.

"And however paradoxical it may seem today, the 'Grail mood' is in the fullest sense to be found in Russia. And the future role that Russia will play in the sixth post-Atlantean epoch, a task of which I have so often had to speak, rests firmly upon this unconquerable 'Grail mood' in the Russian people." --Rudolf Steiner (Nov. 3, 1918) Although Eastern Europe has been part of Christian humanity for more than a thousand years, its task and spiritual identity remain a mystery, the answer to which cannot be found unless we look behind outer historical events to the spiritual, meta-historical dimensions of history. This momentous work, breathtaking in its scope and detail, represents just such a penetrating, esoteric study of Eastern Europe in the light of Rudolf Steiner's spiritual research. Prokofieff shows how, from the earliest times, the future "conscience of humanity" flowed from hidden mystery centers in Hibernia to the eastern Slavic peoples. As a result, qualities of "compassion, patience, and willingness for sacrifice" developed in their souls, creating a truly Christian "Grail mood." Despite incalculable suffering--from the persecutions by the Mogul hordes of the thirteenth century to the Bolshevik experiment of the twentieth century--this quality has become an unconquerable force in the depths of their being. In illuminating the maya of outer history, Prokofieff reveals the forces that have been at work to hinder the progress and future intentions of humankind. Those adversarial forces have created a "karma of materialism" that the eastern Slavic peoples have taken upon themselves out of their exalted willingness for sacrifice. Will we be able to use the present opportunity granted by this sacrifice to fulfill the primary purposes of the present cultural epoch? Serious study of this book--intended for students of spiritual science--can lead to a profound awakening to the challenges that face humankind today.

One of the least known but culturally rich and complex regions located at the heart of Asia, Xinjiang was a hub for the Silk Roads, serving international links between cultures to the west, east, north and south. Trade, artefacts, foods, technologies, ideas, beliefs, animals and people traversed the glacier covered mountain and desert boundaries.