An efficient waste management for emerging photovoltaic (PV) technologies is not mature yet. The problematic aspects along with the possible failure's identification have a pivotal role in modelling the future end-of-life management strategies. The identification of substances of concern (e.g. high cost, low availability, and high toxicity) and valuable materials is a key point to better define the research priorities to improve the eco-design of these technologies. The ultimate goal is to promote the disposal processes which enhance the repair, refurbishment, and recover opportunities and so the profitability of recycling. These studies can also prompt the investigation of innovative materials which are more cost-effective and/or coming from renewable resources or secondary raw materials. Forecasting the waste management technologies for the emerging photovoltaics is highly challenging. In this context, our purpose is to provide an overview of the critical elements and understand the appropriate corrective improvements towards more sustainable technologies.

An efficient waste management for emerging photovoltaic (PV) technologies is not mature yet. The problematic aspects along with the possible failure,Äôs identification have a pivotal role in modelling the future end-of-life management strategies. The identification of substances of concern (e.g. high cost, low availability, and high toxicity) and valuable materials is a key point to better define the research priorities to improve the eco-design of these technologies. The ultimate goal is to promote the disposal processes which enhance the repair, refurbishment, and recover opportunities and so the profitability of recycling. These studies can also prompt the investigation of innovative materials which are more cost-effective and/or coming from renewable resources or secondary raw materials. Forecasting the waste management technologies for the emerging photovoltaics is highly challenging. In this context, our purpose is to provide an overview of the critical elements and understand the appropriate corrective improvements towards more sustainable technologies.

Photovoltaic (PV) solar energy is expected to be the world's largest source of electricity in the future. To enhance the long-term reliability of PV modules, a thorough understanding of failure mechanisms is of vital importance. In addition, it is important to address the potential downsides to this technology. These include the hazardous chemicals needed for manufacturing solar cells, especially for thin-film technologies, and the large number of PV modules disposed of at the end of their lifecycles. This book discusses the reliability and environmental aspects of PV modules.

This dissertation explores the eco-design concepts for emerging PV cells. By conducting life cycle assessment (LCA) method, I addressed the following questions: (1) What is the environmental impact of a scalable perovskite PV cell? (2) How important are the metal emissions from the emerging thin film devices during the use phase? (3) What are the environmental impacts and costs of the materials used in emerging PVs? These questions are addressed in the analyses presented in the Chapters two, three and four, respectively. Chapter two assesses the environmental impacts of perovskites PVs that have device structures suitable for low cost manufacturing. A structure with an inorganic hole transport layer (HTL) was developed for both solution and vacuum based processes, and an HTL-free structure with printed back contact was modeled for solution-based deposition. The environmental impact of conventional Si PV technology was used as a reference point. The environmental impacts from manufacturing of perovskite solar cells were lower than that of mono-Si. However, environmental impacts from unit electricity generated were higher than all commercial PV technology mainly because of the shorter lifetime of perovskite solar cell. The HTL-free perovskite generally had the lowest environmental impacts among the three structures studied. Solution based methods used in perovskite deposition were observed to decrease the overall electricity consumption. Organic materials used for preparing the precursors for perovskite deposition were found to cause a high marine eutrophication impact. Surprisingly, the toxicity impacts of the lead used in the formation of the absorber layer were found to be negligible. Chapter three addresses the life cycle toxicity of metals (cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, tin and zinc) that are commonly used in emerging PVs. In estimating the potential metal release, a new model that incorporates field conditions (crack size, time, glass thickness) and physiochemical properties (diffusion coefficient and solubility product) was introduced. The results showed that the use phase toxicity of copper and lead can be more toxic than that of the extraction phase. Thus, precautionary loss limits to manage toxic impacts from the use phase was proposed. Also, the toxicity from different layers of perovskite, copper zinc tin sulphide (CZTS), and quantum dot (QD) type of solar cells was compared. It was found that cadmium sulphide (compared to zinc oxide and tin oxide) and lead (II) sulphide (compared to lead (II) iodine and CZTS) were less toxic alternatives for electron selective layer and light absorber, respectively. Finally, in comparing the toxic metal releases of the PVs to today's coal power plants, it was seen that the metal emissions from PVs are expected to be several times less than the emissions from coal Chapter four aims to create inventories that offer insight into the environmental impacts, and cost of all the materials used in emerging PV technologies. The results show that CO2 emissions associated with the absorber layers, are much less than the CO2 emissions associated with contact and charge selective layers. CdS (charge selective layer) and ITO (contact layer) have the highest environmental impacts compared to Al2O3, CuI, CuSCN, MoO3, NiO, P3HT, PCBM, PEDOT:PSS, SnO2, Spiro-OMeTAD, and TiO2 (charge selective layers) and Al, Ag, FTO, Mo, ZnO:In, and ZnO/ZnO:Al (contact layers). The cost assessments show that the organic materials such as polymer absorber, CNT, P3HT and Spiro-OMeTAD are the most expensive materials. Inorganic materials would be more preferable to lower the cost in solar cells. All the remaining materials have a potential to be used in commercial PV market. Finally, the eco-efficiency analysis showed that absorbers made from polymer, and CNT, charge selective layers made from SpiroOMeTAD, PCBM and CdS and contact layers made from ITO, ZnO:In, and ZnO:ZnO:Al materials should be excluded from emerging PV market to lower the cost and environmental impacts from solar cells.

Decarbonizing today's electricity grid is a top priority to curb impending consequences of anthropogenic climate change. Solar photovoltaic (PV) technologies have grown into a low-cost, reliable, and sustainable power source, already becoming the cheapest source of electricity in some parts of the world. To transition into a clean grid, cumulative global PV deployment need to grow by at least 10 times from today's 1 TW PV capacity. This rapid growth in PV deployment presents emerging sustainability challenges including increased demand to specific material supply chains and emergence of large volume of waste stream as PV modules are retired several decades later. The overall objective of this thesis is to apply analytical sustainability tools embedded in life cycle thinking and industrial ecology to anticipate environmental and human health impacts of evolving incumbent crystalline silicon (c-Si) and emerging lead halide perovskite (LHP) PV technologies at industry-relevant scales. This thesis presents three novel contributions by answering the following research questions about PV sustainability. (1) How do the evolution of c-Si module design, performance, and end of life pathways impact cradle-to-cradle material circularity to support a circular, resource-conserving economy? (2) What is the projected environmental impact of novel chemical precursors used in pre-commercial LHP PVs at industrial scale? (3) What is the potential magnitude of human health risks associated with the accidental release of Pb leachate during a breakage event of LHP modules in a prospective utility-scale installation? These questions are addressed in the analyses presented in chapters 2,3 and 4, respectively. Chapter two presents an open-source dynamic material flow analysis model of PV systems (PV DMFA) spanning the period 2000-2100 to trace and quantify material flows throughout their cradle-to-cradle life cycles. A case study was carried out to study PV flat glass and aluminum, which comprise 80-90% of PV modules. Results indicate that improving initial deployment parameters, particularly those related to system performance and reliability (i.e., efficiency degradation and lifetimes), has the most impact in minimizing material life cycle waste and significantly alleviating raw material demand. We also found out that scaling a robust PV recycling infrastructure that emphasizes recovery of high-quality scrap is essential to closing material loops. Chapter three presents a detailed ex-ante supply chain modeling for perovskite cationic precursors including methylammonium iodide (MAI), formamidinium iodide (FAI) and cesium iodide (CsI) and their subsequent life cycle environmental and energy impacts. These precursors make perovskite alloys that create a high efficiency thin film in LHP PV module. Results from this work contradict those of prior literature that warned against deploying high-performing FA-rich LHP alloys, citing outsized environmental impacts. Our results indicate that the process-based climate change, cumulative energy demand, and human toxicity impacts of CsI, MAI, and FAI are similar to each other and to lead iodide (PbI2) salts on a molar basis.. Additionally, the impacts of the perovskite precursors are ∼1000-fold smaller than those of glass when considering amounts needed per module area. Therefore, selection of perovskite composition can be based on PV efficiency and operational stability, without additional constraints of environmental impact. Finally, chapter four presents a screening-level, human health risk assessment for released Pb leachate in hypothetical breakage events of emerging LHP modules. Presence of Pb is essential to retain the high efficiency of LHP thin films, but also raises toxicity concerns and therefore a risk assessment is necessary. We applied and expanded upon fate and transport models for PV contaminants to estimate the Pb concentrations in soil, groundwater aquifer and air for large-scale conceptual PV sites under partial and full (i.e., site-wide) breakage events. Results indicate that Pb exposure point concentration in topsoil could exceed regulatory limits, but its concentration will be diluted to acceptable limits within the first centimeter of soil. Single point concentrations for Pb in air and groundwater stays within the acceptable limits. However, in extreme cases, Monte Carlo exposure concentrations in air exceeds permissible limits when topsoil becomes heavily contaminated. Results for groundwater risk stayed robust in Monte Carlo analysis. The study highlights the need for more accurate modeling methods for leachable contaminants and warrants further attention to active site management during catastrophic events. With hopes for more equitable and sustainable future

Whole System Design is increasingly being seen as one of the most cost-effective ways to both increase the productivity and reduce the negative environmental impacts of an engineered system. A focus on design is critical, as the output from this stage of the project locks in most of the economic and environmental performance of the designed system throughout its life, which can span from a few years to many decades. Indeed, it is now widely acknowledged that all designers - particularly engineers, architects and industrial designers - need to be able to understand and implement a whole system design approach. This book provides a clear design methodology, based on leading efforts in the field, and is supported by worked examples that demonstrate how advances in energy, materials and water productivity can be achieved through applying an integrated approach to sustainable engineering. Chapters 1-5 outline the approach and explain how it can be implemented to enhance the established Systems Engineering framework. Chapters 6-10 demonstrate, through detailed worked examples, the application of the approach to industrial pumping systems, passenger vehicles, electronics and computer systems, temperature control of buildings, and domestic water systems. Published with The Natural Edge Project, the World Federation of Engineering Organizations, UNESCO and the Australian Government.

The most comprehensive, authoritative and widely cited reference on photovoltaic solar energy Fully revised and updated, the Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, Second Edition incorporates the substantial technological advances and research developments in photovoltaics since its previous release. All topics relating to the photovoltaic (PV) industry are discussed with contributions by distinguished international experts in the field. Significant new coverage includes: three completely new chapters and six chapters with new authors device structures, processing, and manufacturing options for the three major thin film PV technologies high performance approaches for multijunction, concentrator, and space applications new types of organic polymer and dye-sensitized solar cells economic analysis of various policy options to stimulate PV growth including effect of public and private investment Detailed treatment covers: scientific basis of the photovoltaic effect and solar cell operation the production of solar silicon and of silicon-based solar cells and modules how choice of semiconductor materials and their production influence costs and performance making measurements on solar cells and modules and how to relate results under standardised test conditions to real outdoor performance photovoltaic system installation and operation of components such as inverters and batteries. architectural applications of building-integrated PV Each chapter is structured to be partially accessible to beginners while providing detailed information of the physics and technology for experts. Encompassing a review of past work and the fundamentals in solar electric science, this is a leading reference and invaluable resource for all practitioners, consultants, researchers and students in the PV industry.

Encyclopedia of Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment, Four Volume Set comprehensively covers all renewable energy resources, including wind, solar, hydro, biomass, geothermal energy, and nuclear power, to name a few. In addition to covering the breadth of renewable energy resources at a fundamental level, this encyclopedia delves into the utilization and ideal applications of each resource and assesses them from environmental, economic, and policy standpoints. This book will serve as an ideal introduction to any renewable energy source for students, while also allowing them to learn about a topic in more depth and explore related topics, all in a single resource.Instructors, researchers, and industry professionals will also benefit from this comprehensive reference. - Covers all renewable energy technologies in one comprehensive resource - Details renewable energies' processes, from production to utilization in a single encyclopedia - Organizes topics into concise, consistently formatted chapters, perfect for readers who are new to the field - Assesses economic challenges faced to implement each type of renewable energy - Addresses the challenges of replacing fossil fuels with renewables and covers the environmental impacts of each renewable energy